Literature ReviewBrainjacking: Implant Security Issues in Invasive Neuromodulation
Introduction
The concept of altering human conscious experience and behavior with unauthorized manipulation of implanted electronic devices dates back to science fiction literature of the 1980s, when authors began to speculate about the advantages and pitfalls offered by hypothetical electronic neural implants.1, 2 Until recently the risk of neurological implants being used against their users was firmly in the realm of fantasy. However, the increasing sophistication of invasive neuromodulation, coupled with developments in information security research and consumer electronics, has resulted in a small but real risk of malicious individuals accessing implantable pulse generators (IPGs). Unauthorized access to IPGs could cause serious harm to the patients in whom the devices are implanted.
This review summarizes the current literature on the plausibility and potential impact of this risk, identifies possible physiologic mechanisms of attack, and highlights trade-offs inherent in IPG design that provide exploitable vulnerabilities. In doing so we aim to increase awareness of neurological implant security and thereby stimulate discussion of defensive measures. Other than a very brief review from 2009,3 this article is the first to address medical implant information security threats in detail from a neurological/neurosurgical perspective.
For the purposes of this review, unauthorized control of an electronic brain implant will be referred to as “brainjacking,” analogous to the hijacking of a vehicle. The term neurosecurity is used to refer to defense mechanisms protecting neurological implants from subversion.3
Section snippets
Plausibility and Risk of Brainjacking
More than 100,000 patients worldwide have received deep brain stimulation (DBS), predominantly for movement disorders.4 This number is only likely to increase in the future as DBS shows promise for treating a wide range of neurological and psychiatric conditions.5, 6 More speculatively, DBS and similar implants have been proposed as a potential tool for enhancing cognition in healthy individuals7, 8, 9 and as a method of correcting “abnormal moral behavior.”10 Factors contributing to the
Methods of Attack
Once attackers have successfully breached security on a device, they have several options for brainjacking their victim. Stimulation parameters including voltage/current, frequency, pulse width, and electrode contact can be altered to change the effect of stimulation.30 These potential attacks are unlikely to be directly lethal, but may cause serious harm and distress. The accompanying list is not exhaustive and, as the variety and complexity of invasive neuromodulation therapies increases, the
Secure Implant Design
Several design constraints exist that necessitate trade-offs between neurosecurity and other desirable features of IPGs. These trade-offs and challenges, along with specific methods of attack and desirable security features for future devices, have been discussed in greater detail elsewhere,27, 28, 29, 77, 78, 79 therefore this section will only consider the factors most relevant to clinical practice—battery life and practicality.
Telemetric adjustment of IPG settings provides substantial
Conclusions
Use of implanted neuromodulation is still a relatively new field, but has already had a great impact on the treatment of several severe neurological disorders. The future of this field is highly promising and, contingent on positive outcomes in clinical trials and gradual reductions in hardware cost, it is probable that these devices will only become more popular. This popularity is also contingent on factors, such as public acceptance and reliability of implanted neurostimulators, both of
Acknowledgments
Thanks to Binith Cheeran, Andrew Dwyer, Amy Gillespie, Hannah Maslen, Piers Nye, Anders Sandberg, Timo Siepmann.
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Conflict of interest statement: The authors would like to thank the Norman Collisson Foundation and NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre for funding this work.